In the context of operant conditioning, which of the following best describes harmful reinforcers?

• A. Stimuli that increase the likelihood of a behavior but have negative long-term consequences for the individual
• B. Stimuli that are used to punish undesirable behavior immediately
• C. Stimuli that decrease the likelihood of a behavior and are always unpleasant
• D. Stimuli that have no effect on the frequency of a behavior

Answer: (A)

Verified step by step guidance

1. Step 1: Understand the concept of reinforcers in operant conditioning. Reinforcers are stimuli that increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring again in the future.
2. Step 2: Differentiate between positive and negative reinforcers. Positive reinforcers add a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior, while negative reinforcers remove an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior.
3. Step 3: Recognize that harmful reinforcers are a special category where the stimulus increases behavior but leads to negative long-term consequences for the individual, despite the short-term increase in behavior.
4. Step 4: Contrast harmful reinforcers with punishers, which are stimuli intended to decrease the likelihood of a behavior, often immediately and unpleasantly.
5. Step 5: Conclude that harmful reinforcers are best described as stimuli that increase the likelihood of a behavior but have negative long-term consequences, distinguishing them from punishers and neutral stimuli.