Which of the following situations best describes the concept of causation rather than just correlation?

• A. There is a strong relationship between ice cream sales and the number of people who go swimming.
• B. There is a positive association between shoe size and reading ability in children.
• C. A survey finds that people who own more books tend to have higher incomes.
• D. An increase in the number of hours studied directly leads to higher exam scores.

Answer: (D)

Verified step by step guidance

1. Step 1: Understand the difference between correlation and causation. Correlation means two variables have a relationship or association, but one does not necessarily cause the other. Causation means one variable directly affects or causes a change in another.
2. Step 2: Review each situation to identify whether it shows just a relationship (correlation) or a direct cause-and-effect link (causation).
3. Step 3: For the ice cream sales and swimming example, recognize that both may increase due to a third factor (like hot weather), so this is correlation, not causation.
4. Step 4: For shoe size and reading ability, note that larger shoe size and better reading ability may both be related to age, so this is also correlation, not causation.
5. Step 5: For the hours studied and exam scores example, identify that increasing study hours directly influences exam performance, which is a clear example of causation.