1. Intro to General Chemistry

2. Atoms & Elements

3. Chemical Reactions

4. BONUS: Lab Techniques and Procedures

5. BONUS: Mathematical Operations and Functions

6. Chemical Quantities & Aqueous Reactions

7. Gases

8. Thermochemistry

9. Quantum Mechanics

10. Periodic Properties of the Elements

11. Bonding & Molecular Structure

12. Molecular Shapes & Valence Bond Theory

13. Liquids, Solids & Intermolecular Forces

14. Solutions

15. Chemical Kinetics

16. Chemical Equilibrium

17. Acid and Base Equilibrium

18. Aqueous Equilibrium

19. Chemical Thermodynamics

20. Electrochemistry

21. Nuclear Chemistry

22. Organic Chemistry

23. Chemistry of the Nonmetals

24. Transition Metals and Coordination Compounds

[BOOK CHEM] Clutch Version

How does the molar entropy of a substance change with increasing temperature?

The oxidation of iron metal is given by the following reaction

Predict the sign of the entropy change in the system for each of the following processes.
(a) A solid sublimes.
(b) A liquid freezes. 
(c) AgI precipitates from a solution containing Ag+ and I- ions. 
(d) Gaseous CO2 bubbles out of a carbonated beverage.

Use data from Appendix IIB to calculate ΔSrxn ° for each of the
reactions. In each case, try to rationalize the sign of ΔSrxn ° .
d. 2 H2S( g) + 3 O2( g) ¡ 2 H2O(l ) + 2 SO2( g)

For each of the following processes, indicate whether the signs of ΔS and ΔH are expected to be positive, negative, or about zero.
(e) A piece of charcoal is combusted to form CO21g2 and H2O1g2.

Which state in each of the following pairs has the higher entropy per mole of substance? 
(d) CO2 at STP or CO2 at 100 °C and 0.1 atm

Use data from Appendix IIB to calculate ΔSrxn ° for each of the
reactions. In each case, try to rationalize the sign of ΔSrxn ° .
b. Cr2O3(s) + 3 CO( g) ¡ 2 Cr(s) + 3 CO2( g)

The Boltzmann equation includes the term ln W.

The Boltzmann constant, k, is equal to 1.38 &#215; 10&#x2212;23J/K. The entropy change will be much smaller.

The Boltzmann equation includes a natural log (not common log) term, ln W.

Boltzmann&#8217;s law states S = k lnW where W is the number of possible arrangements and k = 1.38 &#215; 10&#x2212;23J/K.

Calculate the entropy of a system that has 2.50 &#215; 108 possible arrangements.

Which substance has greater molar entropy

Consider the spontaneous fusion of ice at room temperature

For a certain chemical reaction, ΔH° = -35.4 kJ and ΔS° = -85.5 J>K. (b) Does the reaction lead to an increase or decrease in the randomness or disorder of the system?

(a) What sign for ΔS do you expect when the pressure on 0.600 mol of an ideal gas at 350 K is increased isothermally from an initial pressure of 0.750 atm? (b) If the final pressure on the gas is 1.20 atm, calculate the entropy change for the process. (c) Do you need to specify the temperature to calculate the entropy change?

Determine the sign of ΔSsys for each process.
a. water boiling

Consider the gas-phase reaction of AB3 and A2 molecules: <img src="https://lightcat-files.s3.amazonaws.com/problem_images/9d02d7c83220edb9-1673461140331.jpg" alt="" />
(a) Write a balanced equation for the reaction.
(b) What is the sign of the entropy change for the reaction?

Diethyl ether (C4H10O2, MW = 90.1 g/mol) has a boiling point of 35.6oC and heat of vaporization of 26.7 kJ/mol. What is the change in entropy (in kJ/K) when 3.2 g of diethyl ether at 35.6oC vaporizes at its boiling point?

Which state in each of the following pairs has the higher entropy per mole of substance? 
(a) Ice at -40 °C or ice at 0 °C

For each of the following reactions state the signs of ∆H (enthalpy) and ∆S (entropy):a) Fusion of ice.b) Sublimation of CO2c) Vaporization of aqueous water.d) Deposition of chlorine gas.e) Condensation of water vapor.&nbsp;

Consider the freezing of liquid water at 30°C. For this process what are the signs for ∆H, ∆S, and ∆G?

For each pair of substances, choose the one that you expect to
have the higher standard molar entropy (S°) at 25 °C. Explain
your choices.
e. NO2( g); CH3CH2CH3( g)

Two different gases occupy the two bulbs shown here. Consider the process that occurs when the stopcock is opened, assuming the gases behave ideally.
(d) How does the process affect the entropy of the surroundings?
<img src="https://lightcat-files.s3.amazonaws.com/problem_images/4610130f864de7ff-1667324047828.jpg" alt="" />

The Balance Between Enthalpy and Entropy

The measure of randomness in a system is called

Cyclopropane and propylene are isomers that both have 
the formula C3H6. Based on the molecular structures 
shown, which of these isomers would you expect to have 
the higher standard molar entropy at 25 °C?
<img src="https://lightcat-files.s3.amazonaws.com/problem_images/035c5c1083c3264c-1667322524647.jpg" alt="" />

&#916;G&#176;, &#916;S&#176;, K

&#916;G&#176;, &#916;S&#176;

&#916;G&#176;, &#916;S&#176;, T

None of these sets is sufficient,  the standard enthalpies of formation are needed.

This is not the only method to determine for a reaction.

 Review equations that relate the terms in each set. 

In order to calculate &#916;H&#176 for a reaction which of the following sets represents numerical values that would be required?

The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics states that the entropy of the universe is always increasing and so it must always be greater than zero.&#160;

The measure of disorder in a system is its __________

Given the values of ΔH
rxn, ΔSrxn, and T, determine ΔSuniv and
predict whether or not each reaction is spontaneous. (Assume
that all reactants and products are in their standard states.)
a. ΔH°
rxn = -95 kJ; ΔSrxn ° = -157 J>K; T = 298 K

An ideal gas is allowed to expand at constant temperature. What are the signs of ∆H, ∆S &amp; ∆G.<img src="https://static.studychannel.pearsonprd.tech/courses/general-chemistry/thumbnails/images/38feb7cf"alt=""/>

Indicate whether each statement is true or false.
(c) In a certain spontaneous process the system undergoes an entropy change of 4.2 J>K; therefore, the entropy change of the surroundings must be -4.2 J>K.

Consider a twofold expansion of 1 mol of an ideal gas at 25 °C in the isolated system shown in Figure 18.1. <QUESTION REFERENCES FIGURE 18.1> 
(b) How does this process illustrate the second law of thermo-dynamics?<img src="https://lightcat-files.s3.amazonaws.com/problem_images/029426ad44c14da6-1673463680814.jpg" alt="" />

What is the change in entropy (∆S) when 1.32 g of propane (C3H8) at 0.100 atm pressure is compressed by a factor of five at a constant temperature at 20°C? Assume that propane behaves as an ideal gas. 
(a) ∆S = +13 J/K
(b) ∆S = -13 J/K 
(c) ∆S = - 0.40 J/K
(d) ∆S = + 0.40 J/K

The Entropy of a Reaction

Find ΔS° for the formation of CH2Cl2( g) from its gaseous elements in their standard states. Rationalize the sign of ΔS°.

Arrange the following substances in the order of increasing entropy at 25oC

The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics states systems (chemical reactions) spontaneously move to state of disorder.&#160;

What is the entropy change when the volume of 1.6 g of O2 increases from 2.5 L to 3.5 L at a constant temperature of 75 °C? Assume that O2 behaves as an ideal gas.

Without doing any calculations, determine the sign of ΔSsys for
each chemical reaction.
a. 2 KClO3(s) ¡ 2 KCl(s) + 3 O2( g)

Predict the sign of ΔSsys for each of the following processes:
(c) Gaseous CO reacts with gaseous H2 to form liquid methanol, CH3OH.

The element gallium (Ga) freezes at 29.8 °C, and its molar enthalpy of fusion is ΔHfus = 5.59 kJ>mol. (a) When molten gallium solidifies to Ga(s) at its normal melting point, is ΔS positive or negative?

Which state has higher entropy? Explain in terms of probability. 
(a) A perfectly ordered crystal of solid nitrous oxide <img src="https://lightcat-files.s3.amazonaws.com/problem_images/4f93faaf40927800-1673453466125.jpg" alt="" /> or a disordered crystal in which the molecules are oriented randomly 
(b) Quartz glass (an amorphous solid) or a quartz crystal

Two systems, each composed of two particles represented by
circles, have 20 J of total energy. Which system, A or B, has the
greater entropy? Why?

Entropy

Entropy & Phase Changes

Indicate whether each statement is true or false.
(a) ΔS is a state function.
(b) If a system undergoes a reversible change, the entropy of the universe increases.
(c) If a system undergoes a reversible process, the change in entropy of the system is exactly matched by an equal and opposite change in the entropy of the surroundings.
(d) If a system undergoes a reversible process, the entropy change of the system must be zero.

Indicate and explain the sign of ΔSuniv for each process.
a. 2 H2( g) + O2( g) ¡ 2 H2O(l ) at 298 K

Without doing any calculations, determine the sign of δssys for each of the following chemical reactions.

When comparing the entropy of different compounds then we must follow a set of guidelines in the following order.&#160;

The element gallium (Ga) freezes at 29.8 °C, and its molar enthalpy of fusion is ΔHfus = 5.59 kJ>mol. (b) Calculate the value of ΔS when 60.0 g of Ga(l) solidifies at 29.8 °C.

The entropy of the universe takes the look at the entropy of our system (the chemical reaction) and of the universe.&#160;

Give an equation that relates the entropy change in the surroundings to the enthalpy change in the system. What is the sign of ∆Ssurr for the following?
(a) An exothermic reaction
(b) An endothermic reaction

18.2 Entropy | General Chemistry

Given the values of ΔH°
rxn, ΔSrxn ° , and T, determine ΔSuniv and
predict whether or not each reaction is spontaneous. (Assume
that all reactants and products are in their standard states.)
c. ΔH° 
rxn = -115 kJ; ΔSrxn ° = -263 J>K; T = 298 K

Rank each set of substances in order of increasing standard
molar entropy (S°). Explain your reasoning.
c. C(s, graphite); C(s, diamond); C(s, amorphous)

Rank each set of substances in order of increasing standard
molar entropy (S°). Explain your reasoning.
a. NH3( g); Ne( g); SO2( g); CH3CH2OH( g); He( g)

Phosphorus pentachloride forms from phosphorus trichloride and chlorine:
(a) Use data in Appendix B to calculate ∆Ssys, ∆Ssurr, and ∆Stotal for this reaction. Is the reaction spontaneous under standard-state conditions at 25 °C?
<QUESTION REFERS TO APPENDIX B>

The Laws of Thermodynamics, Entropy, and Gibbs Free Energy

Predict the sign of ΔSsys for each of the following processes:
(d) Calcium phosphate precipitates upon mixing Ca1NO3221aq2 and 1NH423PO41aq2.

The following data compare the standard enthalpies and free energies of formation of some crystalline ionic substances and aqueous solutions of the substances:
<TABLE>
(a) Write the formation reaction for AgNO31s2. Based on this reaction, do you expect the entropy of the system to increase or decrease upon the formation of AgNO31s2? (b) Use ΔH°f and ΔG°f of AgNO31s2 to determine the entropy change upon formation of the substance. Is your answer consistent with your reasoning in part (a)?

Rank the situations represented by the following drawings according to increasing entropy.

Containers A and B have two different gases that are allowed to enter Container C

The Universe & Entropy

Total Entropy & Spontaneity

For each of the following pairs, predict which substance possesses the larger entropy per mole: (a) 1 mol of O21g2 at 300 °C, 0.01 atm, or 1 mol of O31g2 at 300 °C, 0.01 atm

Due to the nonstandard temperature, &#916;G must be derived from &#916;H&#176 and &#916;S&#176 before K can be calculated.

This value is the natural log of K.

Due to the nonstandard temperature, &#916;G must be derived from &#916;H&#176 and &#916;S&#176 before K can be calculated.

Correct, due to the nonstandard temperature, &#916;G must be derived from &#916;H&#176 and &#916;S&#176 before K can be calculated.

&#916;G&#176 cannot be used to determine since the temperature is 405 K.

Under standard conditions, the free energy for a reaction is directly proportional to the negative of the natural log of the equilibrium constant, K.

Calculate the equilibrium constant for the formation of NO2 (g) from NO (g) and O2 (g) at 405 K. 2 NO (g) + O2 (g) &#8594; 2 NO2 (g)

During a phase change as our molecules grow closer together then entropy will decrease.

Use data from Appendix IIB to calculate ΔSrxn ° for each of the
reactions. In each case, try to rationalize the sign of ΔSrxn ° .
b. C(s) + H2O( g) ¡ CO( g) + H2( g)

Three of the forms of elemental carbon are graphite, diamond,
and buckminsterfullerene. The entropies at 298 K
for graphite and diamond are listed in Appendix C.
(b) What would you expect for the S° value of buckminsterfullerene
(Figure 12.49, p. 509) relative to the values
for graphite and diamond? Explain.

The standard entropies at 298 K for certain group 4A elements are: C(s, diamond) = 2.43 J>mol@K, Si1s2 = 18.81 J>mol@K, Ge1s2 = 31.09 J>mol@K, and Sn1s2 = 51.818 J>mol@K. All but Sn have the same (diamond) structure. How do you account for the trend in the S° values?

The entropy, enthalpy and Gibbs Free energy of a reaction is equal to products minus reactants.&#160;

(a) For each of the following reactions, predict the sign of ΔH° and ΔS ° without doing any calculations.
(i) 2 Mg1s2 + O21g2Δ2 MgO1s2
(ii) 2 KI1s2Δ2 K1g2 + I21g2
(iii) Na21g2Δ2 Na1g2
(iv) 2 V2O51s2Δ4 V1s2 + 5 O21g2

Calculate ∆Stotal, and determine whether the reaction is spon-taneous or nonspontaneous under standard-state conditions.  
(a) -429 J/K; nonspontaneous 
(b) -123 J/K; spontaneous 
(c) +3,530 J/K; nonspontaneous 
(d) +184 J/K; nonspontaneous

Predict the sign of ΔSsys for each of the following processes:
(b) Gaseous Cl2 dissociates in the stratosphere to form gaseous Cl atoms.

Which should have the highest molar entropy at 25oC

Which state in each of the following pairs has the higher entropy per mole of substance? 
(a) H2 at 25 °C in a volume of 10 L or H2 at 25 °C in a volume of 50 L

Using S° values from Appendix C, calculate ΔS° values for the following reactions. In each case, account for the sign of ΔS°.
(d) 2 CH3OH1g2 + 3 O21g2 ¡2 CO21g2 + 4 H2O1g2

The term T&#916;S will have a positive value.

Standard entropies have units of J/K and standard enthalpies kJ.  To calculate the free energy both must be expressed in the same units of energy.

The standard entropy of formation of oxygen is not zero.

This is the standard enthalpy change for the reaction.

Correct use of the equation relating spontaneity to enthalpy and entropy.

S and &#916;H are dependent upon the coefficients in the balanced equation. The standard units for S are J/mol K and for &#916;H kJ/mol. &#916;G, &#916;H, and &#916;S are related: &#916;G = &#916;H &#x2212; T&#916;S

Using standard enthalpy and entropy values, calculate &#916;G for the production of NH4NO3 at 20.0&#x2103;. 2 NH3 (g) + 2 O2 (g) &#8594; NH4NO3 (s) + H2O (l)

Predict the sign of the entropy change of the system for each of the following reactions:
(a) N21g2 + 3 H21g2¡2 NH31g2

In chemical kinetics, the entropy of activation is the entropy 
change for the process in which the reactants reach the 
activated complex. Predict whether the entropy of activation 
for a bimolecular process is usually positive or 
negative.

Use data from Appendix IIB to calculate ΔSrxn ° for each of the
reactions. In each case, try to rationalize the sign of ΔSrxn ° .
d. N2O4( g) + 4 H2( g) ¡ N2( g) + 4 H2O( g)

Determine the sign of ΔSsys for each process.
b. water freezing

For a process to be spontaneous, the total entropy of the system and its surroundings must increase; that is
ΔStotal = ΔSsystem + ΔSsurr 7 0 for a spontaneous process
Furthermore, the entropy change in the surroundings, ΔSsurr, is related to the enthalpy change for the process by the equa- tion ΔSsurr = - ΔH>T.
(b) What is the value of ΔSsurr for the photosynthesis of glu- cose from CO2 at 298 K?
6 CO21g2 + 6 H2O1l2 S C6H12O61s2 + 6 O21g2
ΔG° = 2879 kJ
ΔS° = - 262 J>K

(c) During a certain reversible process, the surroundings undergo an entropy change, ΔSsurr = -78 J>K. What is the entropy change of the system for this process?

Explaining what entropy is

(a) In a chemical reaction, two gases combine to form a solid. What do you expect for the sign of ΔS?

Without doing any calculations, determine the sign of ΔSsys for
each chemical reaction.
b. CH2 ' CH2( g) + H2( g) ¡ CH3CH3( g)

Ideal gases A (red spheres) and B (blue spheres) occupy two separate bulbs. The contents of both bulbs constitute the initial state of an isolated system. Consider the process that occurs when the stopcock is opened.<img src="https://lightcat-files.s3.amazonaws.com/problem_images/41b98894ac570bfd-1673538373767.jpg" alt="" />
(c) How dpes this process illustrate the second law of thermodynamics?

The normal boiling point of Br21l2 is 58.8 °C, and its molar enthalpy of vaporization is ΔHvap = 29.6 kJ>mol.
(a) When Br21l2 boils at its normal boiling point, does its entropy increase or decrease?

(a) Does the entropy of the surroundings increase for spontaneous processes?

The 2nd and 3rd Laws of Thermodynamics

Hydrogen gas has the potential for use as a clean fuel in
reaction with oxygen. The relevant reaction is
2 H21g2 + O21g2 ¡ 2 H2O1l2
Consider two possible ways of utilizing this reaction as
an electrical energy source: (i) Hydrogen and oxygen
gases are combusted and used to drive a generator, much
as coal is currently used in the electric power industry;
(ii) hydrogen and oxygen gases are used to generate electricity directly by using fuel cells that operate at 85 °C.
(a) Use data in Appendix C to calculate ∆H° and ∆S° for
the reaction. We will assume that these values do not
change appreciably with temperature.

For the vaporization of benzene, ∆Hvap = 30.7 kJ/mol and ∆Svap = 87.0 J/(K*mol). Calculate ∆Ssurr and ∆Stotal at:
(a) 70 °C

Given the values of ΔH
rxn, ΔSrxn, and T, determine ΔSuniv and
predict whether or not each reaction is spontaneous. (Assume
that all reactants and products are in their standard states.)
c. ΔH° 
rxn = +95 kJ; ΔSrxn ° = -157 J>K; T = 298 K

Define entropy, and give an example of a process in which the entropy of a system increases.

If the entropy is greater than zero then we classify the process as spontaneous.&#160;

Entropy: Embrace the Chaos! Crash Course Chemistry #20

Predict the sign of ΔSsys for each of the following processes:
(a) Molten gold solidifies.

The Second Law of Thermodynamics: Heat Flow, Entropy, and Microstates

When most elastomeric polymers (e.g., a rubber band) are stretched, the molecules become more ordered, as illustrated here:
<img src="https://lightcat-files.s3.amazonaws.com/problem_images/248ba03e256213ed-1667323969974.jpg" alt="" />
Suppose you stretch a rubber band. (a) Do you expect the entropy of the system to increase or decrease?

If energy can flow in and out of the system to maintain a constant temperature during the process, what can you say about the entropy change of the surroundings as a result of this process?
<img src="https://lightcat-files.s3.amazonaws.com/problem_images/c5240521895a1408-1667323627955.jpg" alt="" />

During a phase change as our molecules grow farther apart then entropy will increase.&#160;

Which state in each of the following pairs has the higher entropy per mole of substance? 
(d) Water vapor at 150 °C and 1 atm or water vapor at 100 °C and 2 atm

Predict the signs of ΔH and ΔS for this reaction. Explain your choice.
<img src="https://lightcat-files.s3.amazonaws.com/problem_images/78b839f79306eb2c-1667391628030.jpg" alt="" />

Given the values of ΔH°
rxn, ΔSrxn ° , and T, determine ΔSuniv and
predict whether or not each reaction is spontaneous. (Assume
that all reactants and products are in their standard states.)
a. ΔH°
rxn = +115 kJ; ΔSrxn ° = -263 J>K; T = 298 K

Which of the following reactions has ∆Ssys> 0?
(a) N2(g) + 3H2(g) -> 2NH3(g)
(b) Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) -> AgCl(s)
(c) 2H2O2(aq) -> 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
(d) 2I(g) -> I2(g)

Two systems, each composed of three particles represented by
circles, have 30 J of total energy. How many energetically equivalent ways can you distribute the particles in each system?
Which system has greater entropy? <img src="https://lightcat-files.s3.amazonaws.com/problem_images/afc35414010de545-1661955704700.jpg" alt="" />

Rank these systems in order of decreasing entropy. rank from highest to lowest entropy. to rank items as equivalent, overlap them.

a) ∆S = + b) ∆S = + c) ∆S = + d) ∆S = +

a) ∆S = - b) ∆S = + c) ∆S = - d) ∆S = +

a) ∆S = - b) ∆S = + c) ∆S = - d) ∆S = -

a) ∆S = - b) ∆S = + c) ∆S = + d) ∆S = +

Predict the sign of ∆S in the system for each of the following processes:a) Ag+ (aq) + Br&nbsp;- (aq) → AgBr (s)b) CI2 (g) → 2 CI&nbsp;- (g)c) CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)d) Pb (s) at 50°C → Pb (s) at 70°C

Whenever a phase change occurs, first determine if bonds are broken or formed to figure out the signs of enthalpy and entropy. Afterwards, determine if the reaction is spontaneous to determine the sign of Gibbs Free energy.&#160;

An isolated system is one that exchanges neither matter nor energy with the surroundings. What is the entropy criterion for spontaneous change in an isolated system? Give an example of a spontaneous process in an isolated system.

Calculating Entropy

Predict the sign of the entropy change of the system for each of the following reactions:
(d) Al2O31s2 + 3 H21g2¡2 Al1s2 + 3 H2O1g2

If bonds are broken then the entropy of a reaction increases, but if bonds are formed then the entropy of a reaction decreases.&#160;

Rank each set of substances in order of increasing standard
molar entropy (S°). Explain your reasoning.
b. H2O(s); H2O(l ); H2O( g)

Which of the following terms best describes entropy?

Use data from Appendix IIB to calculate ΔSrxn ° for each of the
reactions. In each case, try to rationalize the sign of ΔSrxn ° .
c. SO2( g) + 1 2 O2( g) ¡ SO3( g)

Predict the sign of the entropy change of the system for each of the following reactions:
(b) CaCO31s2¡CaO1s2 + CO21g2

Which of the following is a measure of randomness in a system?

Which state in each of the following pairs has the higher entropy per mole of substance? 
(b) N2 at STP or N2 at 0 °C and 10 atm

Use data from Appendix IIB to calculate ΔSrxn ° for each of the
reactions. In each case, try to rationalize the sign of ΔSrxn ° .
c. CO( g) + H2O( g) ¡ H2( g) + CO2( g)

The reaction 2 Mg1s2 + O21g2¡2 MgO1s2 is highly 
spontaneous. A classmate calculates the entropy change 
for this reaction and obtains a large negative value for ΔS °. 
Did your classmate make a mistake in the calculation? 
Explain.

Predict the sign of the entropy change of the system for each of the following reactions:
(c) 3 C2H21g2¡C6H61g2

Isomers are molecules that have the same chemical formula but different arrangements of atoms, as shown here for two isomers of pentane, C5H12.
<img src="https://lightcat-files.s3.amazonaws.com/problem_images/04684dca8bd19e39-1667322308864.jpg" alt="" />
(b) Which isomer do you expect to have the higher standard molar entropy? Explain.

(b) In a particular spontaneous process the entropy of the system decreases. What can you conclude about the sign and magnitude of ΔSsurr?

Use data from Appendix IIB to calculate ΔSrxn ° for each of the
reactions. In each case, try to rationalize the sign of ΔSrxn ° .
a. 3 NO2( g) + H2O(l ) ¡ 2 HNO3(aq) + NO( g)

Which of the following liquid substances has the highest vapor pressure at its normal boiling point?

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Spontaneous Reaction

Thermodynamics&#160;is the branch of physical science concerned with heat and its transformations to and from other forms of energy.&#160;

Entropy is the disorder or chaos associated with a system’s inability to convert thermal energy into mechanical work.&nbsp;

Gibbs Free Energy

Gibbs Free Energy (&#916;G)&#160;represents energy associated with a chemical reaction that can be used to do work.